One Year into his Reign, Burundi’s President Evariste Ndayishimiye has a Mixed Media Freedom Record

By CIPESA Writer |

A year into his presidency, Evariste Ndayishimiye has posted a mixed scorecard for media freedom in Burundi. Having experienced harsh restrictions under Ndayishimiye’s predecessor, the late Pierre Nkurunziza, there was optimism among media practitioners and activists that once sworn in, Ndayishimiye would usher in progressive reforms in the country.

Since taking office on June 18, 2020, Ndayishimiye has actively engaged the media, leading to the lifting of some sanctions. Notable actions have seen the pardon of jailed journalists, lifting of bans against online publishers such as Iwacu, Isanganiro and Ikirihoo as well as broadcasters including the BBC and Radio Sans Frontières Bonesha (RSF Bonesha). However, these have only been partial reliefs as many independent media houses remain banned, while the culture of self-censorship and civil society oppression prevails. 

A History of Repression

In May 2015, Nkurunziza’s bid for a new term in office triggered contestation, with opposition parties and civil society organisations protesting against what they considered an unconstitutional third term in office. The ensuing public demonstrations led to a deadly political crisis, with widespread reports of police brutality, physical destruction of radio and televisions stations, and the arrest of several journalists. The events were preceded by a government order to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to block access to social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, and Viber.

Nkurunziza eventually had his way and won the 2015 elections, after which he set upon systematically shrinking civic space. The period until his death in June 2020 saw an escalation in the crackdown on independent media and journalists, both offline and online, forcing many to flee to exile.

In July 2016, Jean Bigirimana, an independent online journalist, went missing and his whereabouts remain unknown. Witness testimonies allege that Bigirimana was abducted by officials of Burundi’s national intelligence services. Although authorities have denied any involvement in Bigirimina’s abduction, further reports indicate that his family received death threats, forcing his wife and children to flee into exile.

As of October 2017, access to the websites of independent local news publishers http://www.iwacu-burundi.org, http://www.isanganiro.org, and http://www.ikiriho.org was blocked from within Burundi except through use of circumvention methods. Isanganiro’s radio station and Iwacu’s weekly print newspaper remained operational and in circulation, respectively. The management of Iwacu contacted the National Communication Council (CNC) as well as the telecommunication regulatory authority regarding the website blockage, but the authorities denied responsibility, arguing that it could be a technical issue at the Internet Service Provider level. In order to keep its services accessible, Iwacu set up an alternative website (https://iwacu.global.ssl.fastly.net/). Meanwhile, a letter from Ikiriho to the CNC requesting for its website to be unblocked went unanswered.

In May 2018, the CNC issued warnings to Radio Isanganiro, Radio CCIB FM+, and Radio France Internationale, and suspended the licenses of the BBC and Voice of America (VOA) for six months on allegations of not verifying sources and broadcasting unbalanced news. Months later in October 2018, the government suspended the operations of international non-governmental organisations, accusing them of violating the 2017 General Framework for Cooperation between the Republic of Burundi and Foreign NGOs, which requires recruitment of national staff by ethnic quotas. 

On the legislative front, on May 11, 2018, Nkurunziza assented to a new interception of communications law, with sweeping powers granted to government agencies carrying out investigations to intercept electronic communications and seize computer data. The law was passed within two weeks of first being tabled –  in contravention of the constitution.

Meanwhile,  YouTube block in Burundi was documented by the Open Observatory of Network Interference during December 2019 without official explanation. Leading up to the alleged restriction on YouTube, the Burundian government suspended the comments section on the YouTube channel of Nawe, an independent media outlet, and prohibited new channel uploads. Initially, Nawe’s website and Twitter remained active but both have been inactive since August 2020. Moreover, Nawe is no longer listed among CNC’s licensed online media houses. 

The onset of the Covid-19 pandemic presented even bigger challenges. In May 2020, Burundi expelled officials of the World Health Organisation for challenging the country’s Covid-19 response, amidst a looming election. Whereas the country reported some Covid-19 statistics, there was criticism of under-reporting and gagging of civil society and health workers. 

A New Dawn

Under the new head of state Ndayishimiye, who won the 2020 polls by 67%, the repression has eased somewhat. Four Iwacu journalists were released from prison in December 2020 by way of a presidential pardon after serving 14 months of a two-and-a-half year jail sentence for “complicity in undermining state safety.” The charges related to coverage of clashes between the Burundian army and militia from neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo. Prior to their release, various organisations, including the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), had petitioned Ndayishimiye, arguing that the four journalists’ conviction was unjust.

In another positive development, Ndayishimiye held a dialogue with Burundi journalists in January 2021, during which he said that the media are a strong pillar for democracy and development and urged the country’s media regulatory body CNC to urgently engage with media houses that were banned or sanctioned to explore possible reopening.

Following the president’s directive, the CNC invited Léandre Sikuyavuga, Editor-in-Chief of Iwacu, for a meeting on February 11, 2021. Sikuyavuga was informed that the CNC was in talks with the relevant technical service providers to reinstate access to the Iwacu website in Burundi. The ban on the discussion forum of the website, which was imposed back in April 2018, was also revoked. However, at the time of writing, Iwacu remains inaccessible within Burundi.

Also in February, the President of the CNC held a press conference during which he announced the end of all restrictions against RSF Bonesha FM. The broadcaster was one of the independent radio stations destroyed in 2015 and its operating license was indefinitely revoked in 2017. Within four days of the press conference, the station resumed broadcasting. While expressing his joy at the lifting of the sanctions, Leon Masengo, the Director of Bonesha FM, said a lot of their equipment was destroyed in 2015, but the station would start airing in the capital Bujumbura initially and later countrywide once the necessary equipment was replaced. The estimated cost of replacing the damaged equipment was USD 60,000.

More recently, on June 16, 2021, the CNC lifted the ban on Ikiriho and the BBC. In order to resume operations, the BBC is required to apply for a new license. For its part, Ikiriho immediately resumed operations including posts via its Twitter account which had been dormant since October 2018. However, its website remains inaccessible. 

Nonetheless, many other broadcasters including VOA, Radio Publique Africaine (RPA), and Radio Télévision Renaissance remain off air. In order to overcome the national ban, RPA and Radio Télévision Renaissance, whose journalists live in exile, maintain active Youtube channels (Radio Publique Africaine Ijwi ry’Abanyagihugu and Tele Renaissance), whose daily news editions are widely circulated among Burundians via Whatsapp. 

Further, more than 70 journalists who fled the country during the 2015 crisis for fear of their lives are still living in exile as reported by the Le Monde. Meanwhile, self-censorship and civil society repression persists.

 The Next Four Years

In order to rejuvenate the media landscape and civic space to its dynamism prior to 2015, Ndayishimiye must show commitment to uphold media and internet freedom by unconditionally lifting bans on all media houses, including granting amnesty to all journalists currently living in exile. The practice reforms should be matched with policy reforms including amendments to laws that grant undue powers to authorities to conduct unwarranted surveillance and censorship. Ndayishimye should also desist from interrupting access to the internet and social media.

Data Protection Law on the Horizon in Malawi

By Jimmy Kainja |

Three years after announcing plans to draft a bill on data protection in response to the changing media and technological landscape, the government of Malawi issued a call for public comments on the Data Protection and Privacy Bill, 2021. The proposed legislation is a welcome step in addressing policy and practice gaps in privacy and data protection in the southern African country. 

According to the Ministry of Information, with increased digitalisation, personal data collection, processing and storage by public and private sector institutions is on the rise, which warrants greater protection through a dedicated law. As such, the draft bill seeks to “provide a comprehensive legislative framework for the protection and security of personal data, consolidate data protection provisions currently found in various Acts of Parliament, and protect the privacy of individuals without hampering social and economic development in Malawi.” 

Section 21 of Malawi’s Constitution provides that every person shall have the right to personal privacy, which shall include the right not to be subject to (a) searches of his or her person, home or property; (b) the seizure of private possessions; or (c) interference with private communications, including mail and all forms of telecommunications. The bill aims to actualise the constitutional provisions and would apply to “processing of personal data wholly or partly by automated means”. 

Under clause 5, exemptions apply to the processing of personal data “to the extent it is carried out by one or more individuals solely for personal, recreational or household purposes.” Further, exceptions apply to the processing of personal data carried out by unspecified “competent authorities” for purposes of law enforcement, promotion of public health or prevention or control of an epidemic, national security and credit reference bureau business. Without a clear definition of what constitutes legitimate purposes under the various exemptions, data subjects may be subject to violation of privacy. 

On a positive note, under Part III, the bill sets out various principles governing processing of personal data. Among these are fairness and transparency; prohibition of processing of sensitive personal data; obtaining consent prior to processing the data of a minor (below 18 years); burden of proof for establishing consent being borne by the data controller; provision of all the necessary information to the data subject prior to data collection; collection based on legitimate purpose, minimisation, limited retention and accuracy; and conduct of a data protection impact assessment prior to processing.  

The rights of a data subject outlined under Part IV include correction and deletion, withdrawal of consent, objection to procession, refusal of automated decision making, and data portability. Under data portability, the bill provides for cross-border data transfers, with  clause 34 stipulating that data transfers to another country or international organisation are restricted to a recipient “subject to a law, binding corporate rules, contractual clauses, code of conduct or certification mechanism that affords an adequate level of protection”.

According to clause 35, protection is deemed adequate “if it upholds principles that are substantially similar to the conditions for processing of the personal data” provided for under the Malawian bill. Among others, adequacy of protection takes into account the availability of enforceable data subject rights; the ability of data subjects to enforce their rights through administrative or judicial redress, and the rule of law generally; the existence of an effective data protection law; the existence and functioning of an independent, competent data protection or similar supervisory authority with adequate enforcement powers; and international commitments and conventions binding on the relevant country or international organisation and its membership of any multilateral or regional organisations. 

In the absence of adequate protections, cross-border data transfers may only happen if the data subject is informed of the possible risks and consents, if the transfer is necessary for the performance of a contract, or if the transfer is for the benefit of the data subject. 

The penalty for failure to comply with the provisions of the bill or enforcement orders are a fine of 5,000,000 Kwacha (USD 6,200 ) and imprisonment for two years (clause 42). Meanwhile, the penalty for an offence in contravention of regulations issued pursuant to the bill is also a fine of 5,000,000 Kwacha  (USD 6,200) and imprisonment for up to five years. 

The bill empowers the country’s telecommunications regulator, the Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority (MACRA), to oversee the implementation of the data protection law. However, MACRA’s proposed mandate raises concerns about autonomy, given that the Authority is reportedly subject to political interference. Also, MACRA has a history of failing to implement aspects of its core mandate, such as evidenced by telecommunications operator compliance with universal service provision obligations

Another cause for concern is the  National Registration and Identification System (NRIS), which is being used for biometric data collection and its processing has been centralised in Malawi since 2017. The NRIS is linked to voter registration, revenue collection, immigration, SIM card registration, banking, as well as financial inclusion and development programmes. This has made it ever more crucial to have strong regulations to protect personal data privacy. Starting March 2021, the system has been used to support the Covid-19 vaccine rollout. The NRIS has been described as having been rolled out at “breakneck speed”, without due regard for human rights. This has been largely attributed to primary focus on social-economic issues, as opposed to digital rights. 

The move to enact a data protection law in Malawi, in consultation with the public and stakeholders, is commendable. However, certain provisions such as those relating to exemptions have the potential to undermine privacy and should be revised. Revisions to the bill should also take into account penalties commiserate with offences, and provide for establishment of a truly independent oversight body.  

It is also hoped that the data protection bill is passed swiftly and not take decades in the pipeline as was the case with the Access to Information law, whose proposals were first tabled in 1999, only to be passed in 2016, enacted in 2017 and operationalised in 2020.

Aperçu de la Responsabilité des Intermédiaires au Sénégal

By Astou Diouf |

Parmi ses homologues ouest-africains, le Sénégal fait partie des leaders dans les efforts de numérisation. Ses classements en matière de liberté de la presse sont élevés et le pays a également enregistré des progrès positifs en matière de protection des données. Les acteurs du secteur des télécommunications comprennent les entrants de 2018, ARC Telecom, WAW Telecom et Africa Access, aux côtés de l’entreprise  Sonatel, Free (initialement sous licence SENTEL, rebaptisée plus tard Tigo) et Expresso Sénégal

De plus, l’accessibilité d’Internet reste un défi, le pays se classant 25ème  sur 72 pays évalués selon l’indice d’accessibilité. En décembre 2020, la pénétration d’Internet au Sénégal était estimée à 88,7% et la pénétration mobile à 114,2%. Cependant, il existe des inquiétudes concernant les contrôles répressifs prétendument destinés à lutter contre la cybercriminalité, la désinformation et les discours de haine. 

Cet article met en évidence l’état de la responsabilité des intermédiaires au Sénégal à travers l’environnement juridique et réglementaire relatif aux obligations des intermédiaires, y compris la divulgation d’informations/données aux autorités répressives, le filtrage ou le blocage de contenu et les limitations du service. 

Aperçu législatif et réglementaire

La loi sur les transactions électroniques et le décret sur les communications électroniques sont les principales législations qui établissent un cadre de responsabilité des intermédiaires au Sénégal. L’article 3(1) de la loi n° 2008-08 du 25 janvier 2008 relative aux transactions électroniques désigne les intermédiaires comme « les personnes dont l’activité est de fournir au public l’accès à des services par le biais des technologies de l’information et de la communication ».

S’inspirant de la loi française n° 2004-575 du 21 juin 2004 pour la confiance dans l’économie numérique, la loi de 2008 impose aux intermédiaires des obligations limitées de surveillance des contenus, mais les oblige à mettre en place des mécanismes pour supprimer ou empêcher l’accès aux contenus illicites, informer les utilisateurs des restrictions de service et des plaintes.

L’article 3(2) précise les personnes physiques ou morales qui fournissent au public un service de stockage de signaux, d’écrits, d’images, de sons ou de messages «  ne peuvent pas voir leur responsabilité civile engagée du fait  des activités ou des informations stockées à la demande d’un destinataire de ces services si elles n’avaient pas effectivement connaissance de leur caractère illicite ou de faits et circonstances faisant apparaître ce caractère ou si,  dès le moment où elles en ont eu cette connaissance, elles ont agi promptement pour retirer ces données ou pour en rendre l’accès impossible ».

Cependant, sans une définition claire de ce qui constitue un contenu illicite, la loi sur les transactions électroniques laisse place à la restriction de l’accès à un contenu arbitrairement jugé illégal, mais il n’existe pas de dispositions claires sur les moyens de contester les décisions de retrait de contenu. 

En revanche, la confidentialité des informations personnelles est exigée par l’article 5. Le non-respect des dispositions de la loi sur les transactions électroniques constitue une infraction aux articles 431-46 à 431-49 du Code pénal de 2016, passible d’une amende de 250 000 à 1 000 000 de francs (461 à 1 845 USD), d’un emprisonnement de six mois à un an, ou des deux.

Le décret de 2008 sur les communications électroniques considère les intermédiaires comme des parties neutres n’exerçant aucun contrôle sur le contenu, en partant du principe qu’ils ne font que transmettre ou stocker des informations, parfois de manière temporaire. Ainsi, l’article 6 limite la responsabilité des intermédiaires lorsque « 1) ils ne choisissent pas le destinataire de la transmission ; 2) ils n’initient pas la transmission ; 3) les activités de transfert et de fourniture d’accès visent exclusivement à effectuer la transmission ou la fourniture d’accès ; 4) ils ne modifient pas les informations soumises à la transmission ; 5) ils exécutent une décision d’une autorité judiciaire ou administrative de supprimer l’information ou d’en interdire l’accès. 

Alors que la loi sur les transactions électroniques et le décret sur les communications électroniques limitent la responsabilité des intermédiaires, d’autres lois imposent des obligations qui ont des implications sur les droits des utilisateurs, comme détaillé ci-dessous. Il s’agit notamment de la loi sur les services de renseignement, de la loi modifiant le Code de procédure pénale, du Code des communications électroniques et de la loi modifiant le Code pénal.

Interception des communications et divulgation d’informations

La loi n°2016-33 du 14 décembre 2016 relative aux services de renseignement en vertu de l’article 10 précise que dans l’intérêt de la sécurité nationale, les autorités de renseignement peuvent « utiliser des procédures techniques, intrusives, de surveillance ou de localisation pour collecter des informations utiles à la neutralisation de la menace ». L’article 11 exige des prestataires de services qu’ils coopèrent et assistent des « organismes privés concernés » non spécifiés dans leurs activités de renseignement. 

La loi n° 2016-30 modifiant la loi n° 65-61 de 1965 portant code de procédure pénale mentionne également la responsabilité des intermédiaires en matière d’enquêtes pénales. L’article 90-11 exige la coopération d’intermédiaires avec les autorités d’enquête pour collecter ou l’enregistrer « en temps réel » des données et communications électroniques pertinentes. L’article 90-14 prévoit que le procureur de la République doit adresser aux opérateurs de télécommunications et aux fournisseurs de services une demande formelle de coopération. L’enregistrement et l’interception des communications en vertu du code pénal sont soumis à l’autorisation écrite d’un juge.

En outre, l’article 90-17 habilite les juges à ordonner aux intermédiaires de décrypter les données ou de fournir des informations sur le fonctionnement des systèmes cryptés. Les ordonnances ne sont pas susceptibles d’appel et leur validité est limitée à une période de deux à quatre mois renouvelable au cas par cas. L’absence de dispositions permettant aux personnes faisant l’objet d’une surveillance de contester les ordonnances judiciaires va à l’encontre des dispositions de la Convention de Budapest (à laquelle le Sénégal est partie), qui vise à assurer un équilibre approprié entre les intérêts des forces de l’ordre et le respect des droits fondamentaux de l’homme.

L’article 20 du Code des communications électroniques réaffirme l’obligation pour les prestataires de services de coopérer avec les autorités gouvernementales conformément aux dispositions de l’article 90-11 du Code de procédure pénale, notamment en divulguant les informations pertinentes et en offrant une assistance technique sur demande. 

Limitations du service

Le Code des communications électroniques 2018 impose aux fournisseurs de services de « prévenir une congestion imminente du réseau et atténuer les effets d’une congestion exceptionnelle ou temporaire, pour autant que les catégories équivalentes de trafic fassent l’objet d’un traitement égal » (article 27) ». Il ajoute que « l’autorité de régulation peut autoriser ou imposer toute mesure de gestion du trafic qu’elle juge utile pour préserver la concurrence dans le secteur des télécommunications électroniques et assurer un traitement équitable de services similaires ». En application de ces dispositions, les intermédiaires peuvent réduire le débit ou interrompre Internet à des moments et des lieux, sous prétexte de réduire la congestion du réseau. Les dispositions confèrent également à l’Autorité de régulation des télécommunications et des postes (ARTP) des pouvoirs illimités pour autoriser ou imposer des restrictions sur la disponibilité des réseaux de communication numériques. 

Des exigences strictes de confidentialité et de continuité de service sont également imposées aux intermédiaires et à leur personnel en vertu de l’article 167 du Code pénal qui prévoit  que « la suppression ou l’ouverture de correspondance adressée à des tiers de mauvaise foi » est un délit passible d’un emprisonnement de six jours à un an et une amende de 20 000 à 100 000 francs (36 à 185 USD), ou les deux.  

Restrictions de contenu

Il n’y a pas d’obligations spécifiques pour les intermédiaires de surveiller activement les réseaux et les plateformes à la recherche de contenus contrefaits. L’article 3, paragraphe 5, de la loi de 2008 sur les transactions électroniques stipule que les prestataires de services « ne sont pas soumises à une obligation générale de surveiller les informations qu’ils transmettent ou stockent, ni à une obligation générale de rechercher des faits ou des circonstances révélant des activités illicites ». Cependant, la disposition fait l’objet d’une activité de surveillance ciblée et de demandes des autorités judiciaires. En ce qui concerne les crimes contre l’humanité, l’incitation à la haine raciale et la pornographie infantile, l’article 3, paragraphe 5, prévoit que les intermédiaires doivent mettre en place des systèmes « facilement accessibles et visibles » pour permettre que de tels contenus soient portés à leur attention.

Alors que la Constitution du Sénégal garantit la liberté d’expression, l’article 255 du Code pénal prévoit que : « La publication, la diffusion, la divulgation ou la reproduction, par quelque procédé que ce soit, de fausses nouvelles, fabriquées, falsifiées ou faussement attribuées à des tiers » qui entraîne la désobéissance civile, met en danger la population ou discrédite les institutions publiques est un délit passible d’un emprisonnement d’un à trois ans et d’une amende de 100 000 à 1 500 000 francs (185 à 2 770 USD). Sans une définition claire de ce qui constitue une fausse nouvelle et compte tenu des exigences de coopération avec les autorités chargées de l’application des lois, le défaut des intermédiaires de signaler toute infraction peut entraîner des sanctions. 

Aux termes de l’article 431-61 du Code pénal, la condamnation pour une infraction à la loi commise via des communications électroniques entraîne des peines supplémentaires. Elles comprennent l’interdiction d’envoyer des communications électroniques, l’interdiction temporaire ou définitive d’accéder au site utilisé pour commettre l’infraction ou à son hébergeur. L’article impose également aux prestataires de services de mettre en œuvre les mesures nécessaires pour assurer le respect des sanctions, dont la violation est un délit passible de six mois à trois ans d’emprisonnement et d’une amende de 500 000 à 2 000 000 francs (923 à 3 693 USD). 

Cas de responsabilité des intermédiaires 

  1. Plusieurs entités privées et publiques collectent des données à caractère personnel au Sénégal. Par exemple, il existe un enregistrement obligatoire de la carte SIM lié à la base de données nationale d’identité. Cependant, de nombreux cas de non-respect de la loi sur la protection des données et des règlements de la Commission des données personnelles (CDP) ont été signalés. Voir, par exemple, l’avis trimestriel du CDP
  2. Lors des émeutes du début de l’année 2021, le gouvernement a suspendu les chaînes de télévision privées Sen TV et Walf TV pour avoir diffusé à plusieurs reprises des images des troubles qui ont suivi l’arrestation du leader de l’opposition sénégalaise Ousmane Sonko. En outre, l’accès aux plateformes de médias sociaux, notamment YouTube et Whatsapp, a été restreint.
  3. Le 20 juin 2019, le journal en ligne « Pressafrik » aurait été inaccessible pendant des heures après avoir collaboré avec la BBC sur un reportage d’enquête sur des allégations de corruption impliquant le frère du président Macky Sall. Selon le directeur  de publication Ibrahima Lissa Faye, le piratage a été “sponsorisé” étant donné que “60 % des sites d’information sénégalais sont chez le même hébergeur et PressAfrik est le seul site à être inaccessible”. 
  4. Le régulateur des télécommunications, l’ARTP, a par le passé lancé des ultimatums aux opérateurs de télécommunications pour améliorer la qualité des services.
  5. Selon le rapport Transparence de Facebook, le Sénégal a fait six demandes de données d’utilisateurs, concernant sept comptes en 2020  dont aucune n’a été respectée. Les demandes antérieures, au nombre de 21 pour la période 2016-2019, n’ont pas non plus été satisfaites.
  6. Depuis 2009, le Sénégal a fait quatre demandes de suppression de contenu à Google.
  7. En 2016, le Sénégal aurait fait le deuxième plus grand nombre de demandes d’informations sur les abonnés  à Orange  – 18 653, contre 13 557 l’année précédente.  

Conclusion et recommandations

 

L’environnement législatif et pratique de la responsabilité des intermédiaires au Sénégal manque de clarté sur les rôles et les obligations. Dans certains cas, des pouvoirs excessifs sur l’exploitation du réseau sont accordés aux prestataires de services et au régulateur. Dans d’autres, les exigences de coopération avec les autorités répressives sont larges, sans spécifier les voies de recours en cas d’abus des droits des utilisateurs. Alors que la loi sur les transactions électroniques et le décret sur les communications électroniques sont clairs sur le rôle de l’intermédiaire en ce qui concerne le contenu de l’utilisateur, la loi sur les services de renseignement, le code pénal et d’autres documents prévoient des dispositions contradictoires relatives à la surveillance et à l’interception des communications susceptibles de porter atteinte à la vie privée et à la liberté d’expression en ligne.

Une législation spécifique est nécessaire pour déterminer la responsabilité des intermédiaires, y compris avec précision sur les contenus susceptibles de faire l’objet d’un retrait ou d’un blocage, des procédures d’appel pour les décisions et des mesures de rétablissement des contenus supprimés. En l’absence d’un document juridique spécifique entièrement dédié à la responsabilité des intermédiaires, la définition de la responsabilité des intermédiaires, des responsabilités et obligations, ainsi que des contenus illicites devrait être claire et cohérente dans l’ensemble de la législation existante.

Pour leur part, les intermédiaires devraient fournir des conditions d’utilisation des services claires, accessibles et compréhensibles, y compris des options de confidentialité, de sauvegarde et d’anonymisation, dans des formats accessibles afin de promouvoir la confidentialité et la protection des données. En outre, une transparence accrue des prestataires de services devrait inclure une communication préalable des modifications apportées aux politiques d’utilisation pertinentes, des restrictions de service, ainsi que la publication de rapports détaillés sur la coopération avec les autorités. Parallèlement, il est nécessaire de renforcer les partenariats et l’engagement avec la société civile en vue d’un plaidoyer collaboratif pour promouvoir les principes des entreprises et des droits de l’homme.

Astou DIOUF est boursière CIPESA et travaille sur le rôle des intermédiaires et des fournisseurs de services Internet dans la lutte contre la Covid-19 au Sénégal, notamment sur des questions telles que la facilitation de l’accès à Internet, les atteintes à la vie privée et aux données personnelles, et le contenu.

Overview of Intermediary Liability in Senegal

By Astou Diouf |

Among its west African counterparts, Senegal is among the leaders in digitalisation efforts. Its press freedom rankings are high and the country has also recorded positive strides in data protection. Telecommunications sector players include 2018 entrants ARC Telecom, WAW Telecom and Africa Access, alongside the state-owned Sonatel, Free (initially licensed as SENTEL, later rebranded as Tigo), and Expresso Senegal

Moreover, internet affordability remains a challenge, with the country ranked 25th out of 72 countries assessed under the Affordability Index. As at December 2020, internet penetration in Senegal was estimated at 88.7% and mobile penetration at 114.2%. However,  there are concerns about repressive controls purportedly aimed at countering cybercrime, misinformation and hate speech. 

This article highlights the state of intermediary liability in Senegal, including the legal and regulatory environment relevant to intermediaries’ obligations including information/ data disclosure to law enforcement authorities, filtering or blocking content, and service restrictions. 

Legislative and Regulatory Overview

The electronic transactions law and eCommunications decree are the primary legislations that establish an intermediary liability framework in Senegal. Article 3(1) of law n° 2008-08 of January 25, 2008 on Electronic Transactions refers to intermediaries as “persons whose activity is  to provide  the public access to services through information and communication technologies”.

Borrowing from France’s law n° 2004-575 of June 21, 2004 on Confidence in the Digital Economy, the 2008 law places limited obligations on intermediaries to monitor content, but requires them to put in place mechanisms to remove or prevent access to unlawful content, inform users of service restrictions and complaints.

Article 3(2) states that a natural or legal persons who provides  to the public a service of storage of signals, writings, images,  sound or messages “cannot be held liable for the activities or information stored at the request of a recipient of these services if they did not have actual knowledge of their illicit nature or of facts and circumstances showing this nature or if, from the moment they had such knowledge, they acted promptly to remove this data or to make access [to it] impossible“.

However, without a clear definition of what constitutes illicit content, the electronic transactions law leaves room for restriction of access to content arbitrarily deemed illegal yet there are no clear provisions on ways to challenge content takedown decisions. 

On the upside, confidentiality of personal information is required under Article 5. Failure to comply with the provisions of the electronic transactions law is an offence under Articles 431-46 to 431-49 of the Penal Code, 2016, punishable with a fine of between 250,000 and 1,000,000 Francs (USD 461-1,845), imprisonment of between six months and one year, or both. 

The 2008 decree on eCommunications considers intermediaries to be neutral parties with no control over content, assuming that they merely provide transmission or storage of information, sometimes temporarily. Accordingly, Article 6 limits the liability of intermediaries when “1) they do not select the recipient of the transmission; 2) they do not initiate the transmission; 3) the activities of transfer and provision of access are aimed exclusively at carrying out the transmission or provision of access; 4) they do not modify the information that is subject to transmission; 5) they execute a decision of a judicial or administrative authority to remove the information or prohibit access to it.” 

While the electronic transactions law and the eCommunications decree limit the liability of intermediaries, other laws place obligations that have implications on users’ rights as detailed below. These include the law on intelligence services, the law amending the Code of Criminal Procedure, the eCommunications Code and the law amending the Penal Code.

Interception of Communications and Information Disclosure

The law n°2016-33 of December 14, 2016 relating to Intelligence Services under Article 10 states that in the interest of national security, intelligence authorities can “use technical, intrusive, surveillance or location procedures to collect information useful for neutralising the threat’’. Article 11 requires service providers to cooperate with and assist unspecified “relevant private bodies” with intelligence activities. 

Act No. 2016-30 amending Act No. 65-61 of 1965 on the Code of Criminal Procedure also mentions  intermediary liability in relation to criminal investigations. Article 90-11 requires the cooperation of intermediaries with investigative authorities in collecting or recording “in real time” relevant electronic data and communications. Article 90-14 provides that a public prosecutor must issue  to telecommunications operators and service providers a formal request for cooperation. Recording and interception of communications under the criminal code are subject to written authorisation by a judge. 

Further, article 90-17 empowers judges to order intermediaries to decrypt data or provide information on the operation of encrypted systems. Orders are not subject to appeal and their validity is restricted  to between two and four months renewable on a case-by-case basis. The lack of provisions for individuals subject to surveillance to challenge court orders is against the provisions of the Budapest Convention (which Senegal is Party to), aimed at ensuring an appropriate balance between the interests of law enforcement and respect for fundamental human rights.

Article 20 of the eCommunications Code re-emphasises the requirement for service providers to cooperate with government authorities in accordance with the provisions of Article 90-11 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, including through disclosing relevant information and offering technical assistance when asked. 

Service Restrictions

The 2018 eCommunications Code requires service providers to “prevent impending network congestion and mitigate the effects of exceptional or temporary congestion, provided that equivalent categories of traffic are subject to equal treatment” (Article 27)”. It adds that “the regulatory authority may authorise or impose any traffic management measure it deems useful to preserve competition in the electronic telecommunications sector and ensure fair treatment of similar services.” In application of these provisions, intermediaries can reduce the speed or interrupt the internet at times and locations, under the pretext of reducing network congestion. The provisions also give the Telecommunications and Postal Regulatory Authority (ARTP) unchecked powers to authorise or impose restrictions  on the availability of digital communication networks. 

Strict confidentiality and continuity of service requirements are also placed on intermediaries and their staff under the Penal Code Article 167 which states that “deletion or opening of correspondence addressed to third parties in bad faith” is an offense punishable by imprisonment for between six days and one year, a fine of 20,000-100,000 francs (USD 36-185), or both.  

Content Restrictions

There are no specific obligations for intermediaries to actively monitor networks and platforms for infringing content. Article 3(5) of the 2008 electronic transactions law states that service providers “are not subject to a general obligation to monitor the information they transmit or store, nor to a general obligation to search for facts or circumstances revealing illicit activities.” However, the provision is subject to targeted surveillance activity and requests by judicial authorities. In relation to crimes against humanity, incitement to racial hatred and child ponography, Article 3(5) states that intermediaries should set up systems that are “easily accessible and visible” to allow for such content to be brought to their attention. Furthermore, to promptly inform authorities of infringing content and inform users of the policies and practice in place to fight against illegal content. 

Whereas the Constitution of Senegal guarantees free speech, the Penal Code under Article 255 provides that: “The publication, dissemination, disclosure or reproduction, by any means whatsoever, of false news, fabricated, falsified or falsely attributed to third parties” that results in civil disobedience, endangers the public, or discredits public institutions is an offense punishable by imprisonment of one to three years and a fine of 100,000 to 1,500,000 Francs (USD 185 to 2,770). Without a clear definition of what constitutes false news, and considering requirements to cooperate with law enforcement authorities, failure of intermediaries to report any infringements may lead to sanctions. 

Under Article 431-61 of the Penal Code, conviction for an offense under the law that is committed via electronic communications attracts additional penalties. They include prohibition from sending electronic communications, temporary or permanent prohibition of access to the site used to commit the offense or its host. The article also requires service providers to implement measures necessary to ensure compliance with the penalties, violation of which is an offense punishable by six months to three years imprisonment and a fine of 500,000 to 2,000,000 Francs (USD 923 to 3,693). 

Cases of intermediary liability 

  1. Several private and public entities collect personal data in Senegal. For instance, there is Mandatory SIM card registration linked to the national identity database. However, there have been numerous reports of non-compliance with the data protection law and Commission of Personal Data (CDP) regulations. See, for instance, quarterly CDP notice
  2. During riots in early 2021, the government suspended private television channels Sen TV and Walf TV for repeatedly broadcasting images of the unrest following the arrest of the Senegalese opposition leader Ousmane Sonko. Furthermore, access to social media platforms including Youtube and Whatsapp was restricted.
  3. On June 20, 2019, the online newspaper “Pressafrik” was allegedly inaccessible for hours after it collaborated with the BBC on an investigative report into allegations of corruption implicating the brother of President Mack Sall. According to the Publishing Director Lissa Faye, the hack was “sponsored” given that “60% of Senegalese news sites are with the same host and PressAfrik is the only site to be inaccessible”. 
  4. The telecoms regulator ARTP has in the past issued ultimatums to telecommunications operators to improve quality of services.
  5. According to Facebook’s Transparency report, Senegal made six requests for user data, relating to seven accounts in 2020 – none of which was complied with. Earlier requests totaling 21 in the period 2016-2019 were also not complied with.
  6. Since 2009, Senegal has made four requests to remove content to Google
  7. Back in 2016, Senegal is reported to have made the second highest number of subscriber information requests  to Orange  – 18,653, up from 13,557 the previous year.  

Conclusion and Recommendations

The legislative and practice environment for liability of intermediaries in Senegal lacks clarity on roles and obligations. In some cases excessive powers over network operations are granted to service providers and the regulator. In others, requirements to cooperate with law enforcement authorities are broad, without specifying the recourse avenues for abuse of users’ rights. While the eTransactions Act and the Decree on eCommunications are clear about intermediary’s role regarding user’s content, the Intelligence Services Act, the Penal Code and other documents provide conflicting provisions related to surveillance and interception of communications that are likely to infringe privacy and freedom of expression online. 

There is need for specific legislation to determine the liability of intermediaries including with precision on content subject to take down or blockage, appeals procedures for decisions and measures for reinstating removed content. In the absence of a specific legal document entirely dedicated to intermediary liability, definition of intermediary liability, responsibilities and obligations, as well as unlawful content should be clear and consistent across all the existing legislation.

For their part, intermediaries should provide clear, accessible and understandable terms and conditions for service use, including options for privacy, back up and anonymisation, in accessible formats towards promoting privacy and data protection. Furthermore, increased transparency of service providers should include advance communication of changes to relevant user policies, service restrictions, as well as publication of detailed reports on cooperation with authorities.  Meanwhile, there is need for increased partnerships and engagement with civil society towards collaborative advocacy to promote business and human rights principles

Astou Diouf is a CIPESA Fellow, working on the role of internet intermediaries and service providers in the fight against Covid-19 in Senegal, including on issues such as facilitating increased access to the internet, privacy and personal data infringements, and content.

CIPESA, AIRA Stand Against Twitter Ban In Nigeria

Statement |

The African Internet Alliance (AIRA) is concerned about the indefinite suspension of Twitter in Nigeria. This ban is part of a growing trend that curtails freedom of expression and hampers online economic activity. AIRA urges the Nigerian Government to rescind this decision, which is arbitrary, and instead should seek alternative ways of dealing with Twitter.

CIPESA alongside alliance members including Amnesty International, ARTICLE 19 Eastern Africa, BudgIT, the Centre for Intellectual Property and Information Technology Law (CIPIT), the Co-Creation Hub (CcHub), the Kenya ICT Action Network (KICTANet), the Legal Resource Centre (LRC) and Paradigm Initiative.

The Africa Internet Rights Alliance (AIRA) undertakes collective interventions and executes strategic campaigns that engage the government, private sector, media and civil society to institute and safeguard digital rights.